In the contemporary global system, states assume the role of being the fundamental units of the international system. They are unitary actors and serve as the security landscape in global politics.
The Westphalian Foundations of the Modern State System
The foundation of the modern state system was laid by the Treaty of Westphalia, which concluded in 1648, marking the most crucial moment in the political history of the world. The prime objective of signing this treaty was to end Europe’s Thirty Years war. However, it also underpinned the fundamental principles of territorial integrity, sovereignty, and authority of a state to administer justice, formulate laws, and conduct independent foreign policy.
Since then, these principles have been serving as norms of the new international structure. However, the ever-changing global dynamics, the rise of non-state actors as significant stakeholders in the modern global structure, the surge in globalization, and the evolving obstacles to national sovereignty have raised solemn concerns about the relevance of the Westphalian order in the modern world.
The Rise of Non-State Actors and Global Disruptions
This could only be gauged by comparing the prevailing strategic environment with that of the pre-Westphalian era. Before the Treaty of Westphalia, the world was characterized by an intricate web of intersecting state authorities and jurisdictions. Europe was ruled by the Roman Empire, the Catholic Church, the Habsburg Dynasty, and various monarchs. All these powers exercised their influence and authority in different European territories. Their overlapping jurisdictions often led to wars and conflicts.
The European region was mired in chaos and violence due to power struggles and conflicts among different actors, resulting in the infamous Eighty Years War and the Thirty Years War. The sectarian divide also created a significant split between the Protestant and Catholic states. The modern concept of sovereignty did not exist at that time. Church assumed the supreme authority over the states. Meanwhile, much of the Muslim world was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which posed a growing existential threat to European powers — a pressure that ultimately contributed to the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia.
Surprisingly, the contemporary world has pronounced parallels to the pre-Westphalian era. One striking similarity between the pre-and post-Westphalian eras is the persistent sense of anarchy — though its scale and form have evolved. In the pre-Westphalian era, the concept of anarchy was characterized by the convergence of authority and jurisdiction among states, jeopardizing their sovereignty.
In today’s world, non-state actors, global institutions, and the forces of globalization are increasingly chipping away at the traditional concept of national sovereignty. This has fueled an arms race between nations and a growing disregard for humanitarian laws, triggering instability both within and between states — a clear sign of the creeping anarchy in today’s global order.
The role of monarchs and empires has been assumed by the great powers in the modern world order. They have captured the world through their neo-colonial whims, compromising the sovereignty of the third-world countries. The latter are obliged to follow the dictates of the great powers and global financial institutions, such as the IMF and the World Bank.
Moreover, in the modern world order, multinational corporations, NGOs, and terrorist organizations have assumed the role of feudal lords and religion. Hence, non-state actors remained influential in the pre- and post-Westphalian international system. The significance of the non-state actors could be gauged by the fact that a small terrorist group that conducted the 9/11 attacks altered the security of almost every state in the world.
Militant organizations have also influenced the authority of states in conducting independent foreign policy, as evidenced by the fragile governments in the Middle East, and Africa, and the collapse of a legitimate government in Afghanistan. This demonstrates that the Westphalian system is facing significant challenges in creating an ideal world order.
Challenges and the Way Forward
The Arab Spring in 2011 created a power vacuum in the Middle East, which the armed non-state actors filled. The same happened in the African region. Foreign invasions and interventions also played a critical role in undermining the national sovereignty of third-world countries and increasing the influence of militant organizations in these states.
Terrorist organizations like Al-Qaeda*, Tehreek e Taliban – with their franchises in Pakistan, ISIS*and Boko Haram seek to revive Pan-Islamic identity. They refute the modern-day national boundaries and have captured significant territories in some countries, compromising the influence and authority of the central government. Although the world largely operates under the principles of the Treaty of Westphalia, these underpinnings are under severe strain in the contemporary world. A hybrid global order is emerging in the world, with compromised pluralism and state authority, transnational loyalties, and weak state structures in many parts of the world. World leaders need to act responsibly to sustain the Westphalian state system. Otherwise, chaos will prevail across the globe.
*-banned in Russia
Taut Bataut – is a researcher and writer that publishes on South Asian geopolitics
